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Research led by Jilin University, China, is providing bioarchaeological evidence on a mass grave at the Bayanbulag site in Mongolia containing the remains of soldiers from the Han-Xiongnu War. Genetic, isotopic, and tooth analyses indicate that the individuals were not local to Mongolia but originated from North China.

The Han-Xiongnu War was a series of military conflicts between the Han Empire and the Mongolian Xiongnu confederation in the early Iron Age. Historical accounts provide extensive descriptions of prolonged warfare along the frontier, with military campaigns, leadership decisions, and territorial shifts, all written strictly from the Han perspective.

The Bayanbulag site in Mongolia was first identified in 1957, but major excavations did not take place until 2009, when archaeologists uncovered a fortified structure, pottery, iron tools, bronze crossbow locks, iron halberds, coins, and a clay seal with the mark of a Han official.

These findings suggest that the site could have been built by the Han Empire in 104 BC as the Shouxiangcheng or "Fortification for Receiving Surrender" recorded in historical records.

What was not recorded in historical writings was any reference to the 20 or more dismembered skeletons found at the bottom of a burial pit. Previous osteological analysis from the 2009 excavation reported evidence of interpersonal violence, including dismembered limbs and signs of execution. Some individuals were found in kneeling positions, suggesting ritualized treatment or execution of captives.

But who were they? Uncertainties regarding the identities and affiliations of warriors buried at battle grave sites have persisted due to the lack of direct evidence.

Advances in biotechnology now allow for the extraction of ancient DNA and isotopes from skeletal tooth remains, with methods to reconstruct individual origins, regional recruitment practices, and even dietary patterns of soldiers.

In the study, "Bioarchaeological Perspectives on the Ancient Han-Xiongnu War: Insights from the Iron Age Site of Bayanbulag," in the Journal of Archaeological Science, researchers applied a multidisciplinary approach to determine the origins and identities of individuals buried at the Bayanbulag site through their teeth.

Analysis combined ancient DNA sequencing, strontium isotope testing and stable carbon isotope analysis to build on previous osteological and archaeological assessments.

Genome-wide analysis of ancient DNA from 14 tooth samples confirmed that all individuals were male, with 11 having sufficient coverage for detailed ancestry assessment. The 11 were genetically consistent with ancient and modern Han Chinese populations from North China.

Y-chromosome haplogroups O2a2b1a1a-F8, O2a2b1a2-F114, and Q1a1a1a-M120 indicated direct lineage connections to populations in the Yellow River Basin. Mitochondrial DNA showed diverse maternal lineages, a characteristic also observed in modern Han populations.

Strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel confirmed that the individuals did not originate from Mongolia. Measured ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values closely aligned with isotopic signatures from North China, particularly the Ordos Plateau and the Central Plains, suggesting that the individuals were born and raised outside the Mongolian Plateau.

Stable carbon isotope analysis further supported their Han identity, as their diet consisted primarily of millet and wheat, staples of agricultural populations in North China, rather than the meat and dairy-based diet of Xiongnu pastoralists. Strontium isotope findings suggest that most of the soldiers at Bayanbulag may have been from this region.

The picture that emerges is of a Han military strategy involving the construction of fortified garrisons along frontier borders rather than permanent occupation of Xiongnu territory. Bayanbulag appears to have been one such outpost, staffed by farmers likely conscripted to be soldiers, dispatched from the rural northern border regions of the Han Empire.

It remains unclear if they died in battle with the Xiongnu, in the aftermath of a battle as captives or in a disciplinary action at the hands of Han commanders.

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