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Everything in space—from Earth and the sun to black holes—accounts for just . The rest of the cosmos seems to be made of an invisible material astronomers call .

Astronomers know dark matter exists because its gravity affects other things, such as light. But understanding what dark matter is remains an active area of research.

With the release of its this month, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory has begun a 10-year mission to help unravel the mystery of dark matter. The observatory will continue the legacy of its namesake, a trailblazing astronomer who advanced our understanding of the other 85% of the universe.

As a , I've studied how Vera Rubin's contributions have shaped astrophysics. The observatory's name is fitting, given that its data will soon provide scientists with a way to build on her work and shed more light on dark matter.

Wide view of the universe

From its vantage point in the Chilean Andes mountains, the Rubin Observatory will document everything visible in the southern sky. Every three nights, the observatory and its 3,200-megapixel camera will make a record of the sky.

This camera, about the size of a small car, is the . Images will capture an area of the sky roughly 45 times the size of the full moon. With a big camera with a wide field of view, Rubin will produce about five petabytes of data every year. That's .

After weeks, months and years of observations, astronomers will have a time-lapse record revealing anything that explodes, flashes or moves—, or asteroids. They'll also have the largest survey of galaxies ever made. These galactic views are key to investigating dark matter.

Galaxies are the key

Deep field images from the , the and others have visually revealed the abundance of galaxies in the universe. These images are taken with a long exposure time to collect the most light, so that even very faint objects show up.

Researchers now know that those galaxies aren't randomly distributed. Gravity and dark matter pull and guide them into a structure that resembles a spider's web or a tub of bubbles. The Rubin Observatory will expand upon these previous galactic surveys, increasing the precision of the data and capturing billions more galaxies.

In addition to helping structure galaxies throughout the universe, dark matter also distorts the appearance of galaxies through an effect referred to as .

Light travels through space in a straight line—unless it gets close to something massive. Gravity bends light's path, which distorts the way we see it. This gravitational lensing effect provides clues that could help astronomers locate dark matter. The stronger the gravity, the bigger the bend in light's path.

Discovering dark matter

For centuries, astronomers tracked and measured the motion of planets in the solar system. They found that all the planets followed the path predicted by , except for Uranus. Astronomers and mathematicians reasoned that if Newton's laws are true, there must be some missing matter—another massive object—out there tugging on Uranus. , they discovered Neptune, confirming Newton's laws.

With the ability to see fainter objects in the 1930s, astronomers began tracking the motions of galaxies.

California Institute of Technology astronomer coined the term dark matter in 1933, after observing . He calculated the mass of the galaxies based on their speeds, which did not match their mass based on the number of stars he observed.

He suspected that the cluster could contain an invisible, missing matter that kept the galaxies from flying apart. But for several decades he lacked enough observational evidence to support his theory.

Enter Vera Rubin

In 1965, became the first woman hired onto the scientific staff at the Carnegie Institution's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in Washington, D.C.

She worked with Kent Ford, who had built an extremely sensitive and was looking to apply it to a scientific research project. Rubin and Ford used the spectrograph to measure how fast stars orbit around the center of their galaxies.

In the solar system, where most of the mass is within the sun at the center, the closest planet, Mercury, moves faster than the farthest planet, Neptune.

"We had expected that as stars got farther and farther from the center of their galaxy, they would orbit slower and slower," .

What they found in galaxies surprised them. Stars far from the galaxy's center were moving .

"And that really leads to only two possibilities," . "Either Newton's laws don't hold, and physicists and astronomers are woefully afraid of that … (or) stars are responding to the gravitational field of matter which we don't see."

Data piled up as Rubin created plot after plot. Her colleagues didn't doubt her observations, but the interpretation remained a debate. to accept that dark matter was necessary to account for the findings in Rubin's data.

Rubin continued studying galaxies, measuring how fast stars moved within them. She wasn't interested in investigating dark matter itself, but she carried on with documenting its effects on the motion of galaxies.

Vera Rubin's legacy

Today, more people are aware of Rubin's observations and contributions to our understanding of dark matter. In 2019, a congressional bill was introduced to rename the former Large Synoptic Survey Telescope to the Vera C. Rubin Observatory. In June 2025, the U.S. Mint featuring Vera Rubin.

Rubin continued to accumulate data about the motions of galaxies throughout her career. Others picked up where she left off and have helped over the past 50 years.

In the 1970s, physicist James Peebles and astronomers Jeremiah Ostriker and Amos Yahil . They concluded, similarly to Zwicky, that there was not enough visible matter in galaxies to keep them from flying apart.

They suggested that whatever dark matter is—be it cold stars, black holes or some unknown particle—there could be as much as 10 times the amount of dark matter than ordinary matter in galaxies.

Throughout its 10-year run, the Rubin Observatory should give even more researchers the opportunity to add to our understanding of dark matter.